Overview
Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all human beings belong to a single moral community and that our obligations to others do not stop at national borders. The word comes from the Greek kosmopolitēs, "citizen of the world". In politics, cosmopolitans and globalists support international institutions, global cooperation, human rights that apply everywhere, open exchange of people, goods and ideas, and, in stronger versions, forms of global governance or even a world federation.
"Globalism" is a loaded word. Supporters use it to describe a commitment to international cooperation and open economies. Critics often use it pejoratively to describe elites they believe neglect national interests. On this page, we use "cosmopolitanism" for the moral and philosophical idea and "globalism" for the political orientation towards global institutions, and we present arguments from both supporters and critics.
On our test, cosmopolitan globalism shows the strongest Global score of any tradition on our list, a strong Progress lean, a clear Secular lean, moderate Ecology and Equality leans, and a mild Central lean.
Core beliefs
- Universal moral community. Every human being has equal moral worth, regardless of nationality.
- Global justice. Wealthy countries have obligations to reduce global poverty and inequality.
- Human rights. Basic rights should be universal and protected by international law.
- International cooperation. Problems like climate change, pandemics, financial crises and war require global solutions and institutions.
- Openness. Free movement of people, ideas and goods enriches societies.
- Multiple identities. People can be attached to their local and national communities while also identifying as members of humanity.
History
Cosmopolitan thought dates back to ancient Greece. Diogenes the Cynic reportedly described himself as a citizen of the world. The Stoics, including Zeno, Cicero, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, developed the idea that all humans share reason and belong to a universal community. Similar universalist ideas appear in many religious traditions.
During the Enlightenment, Immanuel Kant's essay Perpetual Peace (1795) proposed a federation of free states and a "cosmopolitan right" to hospitality for travellers. The nineteenth century saw the growth of international law, the Red Cross (1863) and international peace movements. After the First World War, the League of Nations embodied hopes for international cooperation, though it failed to prevent the Second World War.
After 1945, the United Nations (1945), the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Bretton Woods institutions and later the European Union created a framework of international cooperation. A world federalist movement campaigned for global government. Globalisation of trade and communication accelerated from the 1980s onwards. The International Criminal Court was established in 2002. In philosophy, thinkers such as Martha Nussbaum, Peter Singer, Thomas Pogge and Kwame Anthony Appiah developed modern cosmopolitan theories. Since the 2010s, cosmopolitan ideas have faced strong challenges from nationalist and populist movements, debates over immigration and the effects of globalisation.
Key thinkers and texts
- The Stoics: Marcus Aurelius's Meditations.
- Immanuel Kant: Perpetual Peace.
- Martha Nussbaum: "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism" (1994 essay).
- Kwame Anthony Appiah: Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers.
- Peter Singer: One World, "Famine, Affluence, and Morality".
- Thomas Pogge: World Poverty and Human Rights.
- David Held: Democracy and the Global Order, on cosmopolitan democracy.
Variants and related ideologies
Moral cosmopolitanism holds that all humans have equal moral standing but doesn't necessarily require global institutions. Institutional or political cosmopolitanism supports stronger global institutions or world government. Liberal internationalism supports international cooperation among sovereign states. World federalism seeks a democratic world government. Rooted cosmopolitanism (Appiah) combines local attachment with global concern. Effective altruism shares the global moral concern. Nationalism and national conservatism stand in contrast.
Where it sits on our eight axes
On Global vs Nation, cosmopolitanism is at the far Global end. On Progress vs Tradition, it leans strongly towards Progress, reflecting openness to cultural diversity and change. On Secular vs Religious, it leans Secular, emphasising universal reason, though religious universalism is also a source of cosmopolitan ideas. On Ecology vs Growth, it leans Ecology, since climate change is seen as the defining global problem. On Equality vs Markets, it leans mildly towards Equality, with concern for global poverty. On Local vs Central, it leans mildly Central, because global problems require higher-level coordination. On Authority vs Liberty, it sits near the centre. On Revolution vs Reform, it leans Reform, working through institutions.
Cosmopolitanism and patriotism
In a well-known 1994 essay, Martha Nussbaum argued that education should emphasise world citizenship over national identity, since nationalism can be morally arbitrary and dangerous. The essay prompted replies from many thinkers. Some argued that people naturally care more for those close to them and that national solidarity underpins the welfare state. Others, such as Appiah, argued for a "rooted cosmopolitanism" combining love of one's own place with respect for others. David Miller defended the ethical significance of nationality. This debate maps closely onto the Global vs Nation axis on our test, and your score there shows where you would stand in it.
How it answers the big questions
- Do we owe more to compatriots? Strong cosmopolitans say no; moderate ones accept some priority but not unlimited.
- What about immigration? Generally favour openness; some support open borders.
- What about global institutions? Support stronger international law and cooperation.
- What about global poverty? A major moral obligation for wealthy countries.
In practice today
International organisations, human rights institutions, development agencies, NGOs and global civil society embody cosmopolitan ideas. Regional integration projects such as the European Union are often described as partial cosmopolitan experiments. Climate agreements and global health cooperation are central contemporary arenas. At the same time, many governments have become more sceptical of global institutions, and debates over sovereignty, migration and trade are central in many democracies.
Criticisms and debates
National conservatives and communitarians argue that cosmopolitanism ignores the importance of national identity, culture and solidarity, which are needed for democracy and welfare states. Critics argue that global institutions lack democratic accountability and can be dominated by powerful states or elites. Some on the left argue that economic globalisation benefited corporations at the expense of workers. Others argue that world government could become tyrannical with no escape. Realists in international relations argue that states will always pursue national interests, so cosmopolitan ideals are unrealistic. Cosmopolitans reply that global challenges can't be solved by nations alone, that moral worth doesn't depend on birthplace, and that international cooperation has prevented great-power war since 1945.
Key dates
- 4th century BC: Diogenes the Cynic reportedly calls himself a citizen of the world.
- 1795: Kant's Perpetual Peace.
- 1863: The International Committee of the Red Cross is founded.
- 1920: The League of Nations begins work.
- 1945: The United Nations Charter is signed.
- 1948: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
- 1972: Peter Singer publishes "Famine, Affluence, and Morality".
- 1994: Nussbaum's essay "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism".
- 2002: The International Criminal Court begins operating.
- 2006: Appiah's Cosmopolitanism.
- 2015: The Paris Agreement on climate change.
Three ways to be cosmopolitan
Philosophers often distinguish between levels of commitment. A weak cosmopolitan believes all humans count morally but accepts that people may give priority to family and compatriots in many decisions. A moderate cosmopolitan also thinks international institutions should guarantee basic rights and that rich countries have real duties to help poorer ones. A strong cosmopolitan holds that national borders have little moral significance and that global institutions should eventually have substantial authority. Your exact score on the world axis gives a rough indication of which of these you lean towards.
Common misconceptions
- "Cosmopolitans hate their country." Most combine national and global identities.
- "Globalism means a secret world government." This is a conspiracy theory; cosmopolitanism is an open philosophical tradition.
- "Cosmopolitanism is the same as neoliberal globalisation." Many cosmopolitans criticise economic globalisation and focus on human rights and global justice.
A note on language
Historically, "cosmopolitan" was sometimes used as an antisemitic slur, for example in Stalin's campaign against "rootless cosmopolitans" in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Today, critics of globalism should be aware of this history, and supporters use the term in its philosophical sense.
What this result may mean for you
A match suggests you see yourself first as a member of humanity, support international cooperation and institutions, and want open, diverse societies. Your Global score will be near the maximum.
A suggested reading path
Appiah's Cosmopolitanism is an engaging introduction. Kant's Perpetual Peace is the classic. Nussbaum's essay and its replies, collected in For Love of Country?, frame the central debate. For critiques, read David Miller's On Nationality, Yoram Hazony's The Virtue of Nationalism and Dani Rodrik's The Globalization Paradox.
Frequently asked questions
What is a cosmopolitan? Someone who regards all humans as members of one moral community.
Is globalism left or right? Support for global institutions exists on both centre-left and centre-right; opposition comes from nationalist right and parts of the left.
Do cosmopolitans want open borders? Some do; many favour more open but still regulated migration.